The Book of the Courtier

At the opening of the fourth book, Castiglione laments that many of the courtiers present in the conversations have passed away. The legacy of these courtiers has been preserved under the governance of the new Duchess, Eleanora Gonzaga. Signor Ottaviano is late, but when he arrives, discussion resumes. Elegant dress and manners, Ottaviano asserts, make men “effeminate” (284). The aim of the courtier is to serve his ruler, and “falsehood” to be avoided (285). Ottaviano counsels that the courtier should seek to spur his prince to virtue by displaying it himself. Signor Gaspare protests that men are born either virtuous or not, and cannot learn the virtues Ottaviano describes. Ottaviano contends that habit, not nature, determines virtue, and like a “good farmer,” the courtier can cultivate it (291). To Gaspare’s critique that some men knowingly commit evil, Ottaviano returns: ”true pleasure is always good” (292). Pietro Bembo maintains that the ignorant cannot distinguish good from evil. Ottaviano claims that true knowledge will disabuse the ignorant of vice, and “temperance destroys all seditious enemies” (294).

Signor Gaspare asks which is the happier form of government, rule by a prince or a republic? Ottaviano answers a prince, because as in nature, the mind rules the body, so the monarch rules the many. Pietro Bembo disagrees, claiming that a republic offers greater freedom. Ottaviano admits that tyranny is the worst of the classical models of government, but it is more advantageous for some men to obey than command. Government of judicious men is best undertaken by a monarch. If a single monarch can be more easily corrupted, it is still easier to find one just man than many. This ruler has “a certain likeness of God” (299) and must make every effort to acquire knowledge if he is to govern well. A man may be judged by how he uses power. The chief office of a ruler is to give commands.

In times of war people should apply themselves to achieving peace, and in peacetime, virtue. In wartime the principle virtue is fortitude, though morality is important too, especially in peacetime. Gaspare asks whether a practical or theoretical education befits a prince. Ottaviano answers that moral virtue is perfected through practice, intellectual virtue by teaching. The prince should choose the wisest for his council. Justice is his chief responsibility, but a prince should also be religious and love his country. He should not rule too oppressively, as this encourages sedition, or leniently, lest he encourage lawlessness. Citizens should be neither too rich nor too poor. Princes should favor the good and punish the evil. Physical well-being and prosperity are important, but “spiritual riches and more advantageous” (309).

Cesare Gonzaga says that princes should display “a certain greatness of spirit,” hold magnificent events, and build great buildings (310), with Alexander the Great mentioned as an example. Signor Ottaviano offers examples of great contemporary monarchs and praises temperance, arguing that princes must exercise good judgement. The Magnifico complains that Ottaviano has set the courtier above the prince, if the courtier’s aim is to make the prince great. Ottaviano contends that if our character is formed by our actions, it follows that a courtier should serve his prince. Through exercising power, the prince gains experience, and so becomes more than a courtier. The “author” of Alexander’s great deeds was Aristotle. Plato was another exemplary courtier.

In love, Pietro Bembo says, the courtier should be virtuous and incur no displeasure. Love is “a certain longing to possess beauty” (325). He distinguishes sensual from spiritual beauty. Lovers who entertain only the former will never be happy, which is why the old can make better lovers than the young. Federico agrees that beauty is not always good, but Bembo asserts that physical and spiritual beauty most often coincide, according to the divine, natural order of things. Sight can be deceived, so the courtier should eschew vulgar passion, and direct his love to his lady’s soul. The courtly lady may even go so far as to grant her lover a kiss, as a kiss connects body and soul. To escape the torment of love, the lover should contemplate “the universal beauty that adorns all bodies” (339). The soul should turn inward to “contemplate its own substance” (339). Blindness to earthly things opens the inner eye to heaven, and bliss. Bembo concludes with a prayer.

Signor Gaspare remarks that he thinks this would be impossible for women. The Magnifico counters this by referencing several ladies of great spiritual attainment. The Duchess cuts Signor Gaspare off. The court retires to bed, with Emilia agreeing that the debate can continue tomorrow only if Signor Gaspare agrees to stand trial.